Taoism / Daoism / Tao
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Overview of TaoismRooted in the ancient Chinese systems of beliefs, influenced by primitive shamanism and observation of natural cycles, Taoism recognizes Lao Tzu (Lao Tse, Laozi, Lao Tze) as its founder and Chuang Tzu (Zhuang Zi) as one of its most brillant representatives. Early Taoism developed as an original answer to the bitter debates during the philosophically fertile time of the Hundred Schools of Thought, corresponding to the Warring States period. It was a time of seemingly endless warfare and chaos. This turbulent era gave rise to a kind of naturalistic quietism in accordance with the "process" of the universe: Tao. Action through inaction (wei wu wei), the power of emptiness, detachment, receptiveness, spontaneity, the strength of softness, the relativism of human values and the search for a long life, are some of its preferred themes.During the Han dynasty, the Taoist school of thought gained disciples and defenders. It enlarged its audience and founded many religious sects with hierarchies of divinities and ritual practices. Taoist ideas and sects have experienced ups and downs during the long history of China. They have been spiritually challenged by Buddhism and socially denigrated by Confucianism. However, a typically Chinese form of syncretism has generally allowed differing belief systems to coexist within society, even within the same person. Beyond the debates and confrontations, Taoism has remained a highly influential stream of thought in East Asia, with philosophy, art, poetry, medicine and divination as its main domains. From the middle of the twentieth century, Communist China strongly repressed Taoism, along with traditional cultural artifacts, which were considered reactionary superstitions. However, Taoism also spread widely in the West during the twentieth century and is now being partly restored in mainland China. Today, some of the vivid intuitions of Lao Tse and Chuang Tzu, especially their focus on accordance with internal and external nature, resonate (unsurprisingly) with modern inclinations towards personal development and ecology.
Early TaoismOrigins of TaoismTaoism is rooted in the oldest belief systems of China, dating from a time when shamanism and pantheism were prevalent. Elements of primitive Taoist thought include the cyclic progression of seasons, growth and death of sentient beings and their endless generation and questions about the origin of life. Observation of natural processes lead to divination pratices where the operator tries to detect opportunities in natural phenomenon (like crackles made in bones). The oldest Chinese scripture is said to be the I Ching, a compilation of readings based on sixty-four hexagrams. The hexagrams are combinations of eight trigrams or gua, (collectively called bagua), resulting in sixty-four possible combinations. Each hexagram has six Yin or Yang lines. When cast, each gives a reading with an image, a judgement and commentaries on the lines. The shift of one or more lines from Yin into Yang (or the reverse) gives rise to another reading, representing a change. Thus, a complex set of relationships between the trigrams, considered as "changing transitional states," is generated on the simple basis of the alternation of Yin-Yang polarity. This is recognized in the saying: "A (stage of) Yin, a (stage of) Yang, is what is called Tao" . Tao is the underlying principle of this fertile alternation, on which the I Ching is built. The cycle of Yin and Yang depicts the complementarity of opposite forces, or qualities: creative-receptive, sunny-shady, male-female, heaven-earth, and so forth; the sum total of life: the universe. Confronting an ever-changing world, Chinese thinkers searched for a principle of unity and continuity. Taoists found the answer in the Tao, an all-encompassing and undefinable principle of "energy" that emerges from emptyness. (Compare the concept of Dharma and Om (Aum) in Buddhism and Hinduism.)
The Tao of Taoism
The Chinese character Tao. Tao refers to The Way of Taoism and the universe. In Taoism, the Tao (or "Great Tao") is the grand cosmic harmony. It is thus obvious, as Shen Dao argued, that everyone and everything follows the Great Tao or ("The Way"). We can also speak of the Natural (sometimes "Heavenly") Tao. That would roughly resemble any course of history that conforms to the laws of nature—with the same consequence. No one needs to try to follow it—you cannot fail. Both "nature's way" and the "great way" can inspire the typical Taoist detachment from moral or normative doctrines. Since it is thought of as the course by which everything comes into being, it seems hard to imagine that we have to select from among accounts of its normative content. It may thus be seen as an efficient principle of "emptiness" that reliably underlies the operation of the universe. Other ways we can call "possible ways" or ways that actually do guide us (tao used as a verb). These, however, according to the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) are not constant. That is, we can choose different guiding taos and we may interpret them differently so we disagree about what they tell us to do. We can attempt to follow them and fail. These are prescriptive ways such as the moral way of Confucius or those of Lao Tse or of Jesus. Nevertheless, the Tao Te Ching says that the nature of all things is beholden to the Tao, suggesting that even these paths will serve this ultimate principle.
Sources of TaoismAs with most Chinese spiritual traditions, Taoism tried to find its justification in the earliest past and rooted itself in both legendary figures and ancient scriptures. It refers, mainly, to three sources:
Other books have developed Taoism, such as the True Classic of Perfect Emptiness, by Lie Zi; and the Huainanzi compilation. Additionally, many regard the ancient I Ching (The Classic of Changes or Book of Changes) and related cosmogonical views of prehistoric China as an original source of Taoism. Finally, there are the myriad other books of the Taoist Canon, many of which purport to be from Laozi, the Yellow Emperor or other such originators of Taoism.
Tao Te ChingThe Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing—The Book of the Way and its Power) emerged as a written text in a time of seemingly endless feudal warfare and constant conflict. According to tradition (largely rejected by modern scholars), the book's author, Lao Tzu, served an emperor of the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE - 256 BCE) as a minor court official. He became disgusted with the petty intrigues of court life, and set off alone to travel the vast western wastelands. As he reached the point of passing through the gate at the last western outpost, a guard, having heard of his wisdom, asked Lao Tse to write down his philosophy, and the Tao Te Ching resulted. It should be noted that this is an allegory and that the western gate may refer to death. Laozi reflected on a way for humanity to follow which would put an end to conflicts and strife. This became the original book of Taoism. The scholarly evidence (buttressed by a cluster of recent archeological finds of versions of the text) suggests that the book took shape over a long period of time in pre-Han China (before the 3rd century BCE) and circulated in many versions and edited collections until standardized shortly after the Han Dynasty.
Chuang TzuChuang Tzu (Zhuang Zi) is often considered as one of the most brillant and eccentric writers of Chinese long-lasting literature. His work may be seen as an highly remarkable exception in the wide landscape of Chinese poetic essays: it could be the only one which doesn't focus on politics. With colorful language and imaginative illustrations, he used irony as a tool to undermine the rigidity of the Confucian system of values being built at his time.
InfluencesTaoist thought partly inspired Legalist philosophers whose theories where used by Qin Shi Huang, founder of the Chinese Empire. The junction point can be found in the work of Hanfei Zi, a prominent Legalist thinker who commented the Daode Jing. He used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor. Primitive Taoism is also partly responsible for the important resonance theory, elaborated during Han dynasty, that underlies many of the cultural productions of traditional China. If a common Tao is at the source of everything, then there must be an homothety between macrocosm and microcosm, a structural commonality between the world, the country, the family, the individual. That's what is involved in the Five Elements theory: the five directions (including center) correspond to five seasons (including a buffer one) and to five tastes, or the five elements themselves. Because of this resonance between separate domains, an Emperor's familial disorder will result in natural disaster and political troubles. This theory has been questioned by Wang Hong but displays the Chinese traditional reticence to exclusive categories.
Taoism and ConfucianismTaoism as a tradition has, along with its traditional counterpart Confucianism, shaped Chinese culture for more than 2,000 years. Taoism places emphasis upon spontaneity and teaches that natural kinds follow ways appropriate to themselves. As humans are a natural kind, Taoism emphasizes natural societies with no artificial institutions. Often skeptical and sarcastic on human values such as morality, benevolence and proper behavior, many Taoist writers do not share the Confucian belief in civilization as a way to build a better world. Rather, they share the will to live alone in the mountains or as simple peasants in small autarchic villages.
Taoism in Imperial ChinaDuring the Han dynasty, Confucianism became official doctrine. Taoism was adopted as a state religion by some emperors of the Tang dynasty, while others were more inclined to Buddhism. Since Song dynasty and until foundation of the People's Republic of China by Mao Zedong, Neo-Confucianism was the official state doctrine but Taoism and Buddhism existed as parallel personal religions.
Taoist religion
A Taoist Temple in Taiwan. The religious practice of incense burning as well as the Fu Dog and Dragon deities can be seen. As the works of Laozi and Zhuang Zi became widely known in China, schools formed based on their teaching. These schools eventually acquired the features of a structured religion and evolved into a religious faith by 440 CE. Laozi became a deity to many Chinese. Around 300 CE various denominations developed with distinct views. Some sought immortality, similar to the Buddhist concept of enlightenment. Others practiced alchemy and magic using herbal potions or wearing charms. Polytheistic elements were added, worshipping many gods, some closely identified with Buddhism, others from Chinese folklore and still others gods of nature, previously unknown. Especially popular were the Eight Immortals, celestial entities who were human but gained immortality through belief. In the Tang period from 600 to 900 CE many Buddhist concepts such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol and the celibacy of the clergy were incorporated into Taoism.
Taoism and BuddhismThe relationships between Taoism and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to renew and restructure itself and address mystical questioning raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind of foreign Taoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Chuang Tzu's philosophy especially influenced the Chinese form of Buddhism known as Chan, which later developed into the Japanese form of Zen. The Bodhisattva, Kwan Yin (Kuan Yin) was an important goddess for both Buddhists and Taoists.
Taoism and the artsFor many educated Chinese people, (the Literati), life divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and into a private aspect, with Taoist aspirations. Home, night-time, exile or retirement provided good occasions to cultivate Taoism and, say, re-read Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts like calligraphy, painting, poetry or personal researches on antiquities, medicine, folklore and so on.
Modern TaoismTaoism in ChinaFrom the 1940s to 1982, Taoism was suppressed along with other religions in accordance with Marxist theory. Much of the Taoist infrastructure was destroyed, monks and priests were sent to labor camps. This intensified during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, nearly eradicating most Taoist sites. Deng Xiaoping eventually restored some religious tolerance beginning in 1982. Since, communist leaders have recognized Taoism as an important traditional religion of China devoted to universal unity and peace and many temples and monasteries have been repaired and re-opened. There are scholars who argue that Taoism is still a prevalent belief within China itself, estimating that the true number of Taoists worldwide, once Chinese believers are accounted for, may be over one billion, making it the second largest religion of the world; however due to the intertwined nature of Chinese traditional religion and other restrictions, a census on the number of adherents in China is not possible. 
Taoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco.
Taoism outside ChinaModern estimates put the number of Taoists outside of Mainland China at 31,000,000, located predominantly in Taiwan. Around 30,000 Taoists live in North America. Taoism has had a significant influence world-wide: in many Western societies it can be seen in acupuncture, art, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation, martial arts, Qigong, Feng Shui and Tai Chi. People in countries other than China practise the Taoist philosophy in various forms, especially in Vietnam and in Korea. Kouk Sun Do in Korea exemplifies one such variation. The Yao have a written religion based on medieval Chinese Taoism, although in recent years there have been many converts to Christianity and Buddhism. Outside China, they are to be found in Vietnam, Laos and Thailand.Taoist philosophy has found a large following throughout the world, and several traditional Taoist lineages have set up teaching centers in countries outside China.
DebatesAbuse of "Tao"In the West, Taoist philosophy has inspired a number of popular spiritual works ranging from Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics to Benjamin Hoff's The Tao of Pooh. In these cases the concept of "Tao" is generalized beyond its original cultural context, although the basic premise of these books is in accordance with Taoist principles. In popular Western parlance, "Taoist" has come to mean generally just being "cool" or "going with the flow". It has also become common to see books and articles titled The Tao Of business strategy, marketing, programming, etc. Links between these works and strict Taoism are often quite tenuous; many authors use "Taoism" as an excuse for obfuscatory speech, while many others use "Tao" to mean any way of doing something, whether it is in accord with actual Taoist philosophy or not. Some authors writing The Tao Of books even contradict what seems to have been the original intentions of Lao Tzu and Zhuang Zi. For example, a book on the "Tao of marketing" would be very hard-pressed to actually follow the Tao Te Ching's anti-materialistic mores.
Taoism: A philosophy or a religion?There some debate about a distinction between Taoism as a religious tradition and Taoism as a philosophical system. When most Westerners think of Taoism, they are often referring to the works of Lao Tse and Zhuang Zi. These thought systems may be seen as philosophies, rather than religions, as they include nothing within themselves about gods, worship or ritual. This type of Taoism is often referred to in Chinese as 道家 (pinyin Dàojïa), or "Taoist Thinking" (though, more literally, as "Tao specialists"). Another aspect of Taoism, more familiar in China or countries under Chinese cultural influence, includes worship of Lao Zi and other divinities, magic, alchemy, qigong, perfection of immortality and many other practices. This aspect encompasses teaching lineages (where teachers pass on texts, rituals and beliefs to select students), temples and sects. It is often refered to as Taoist religion, or µÀ½Ì (pinyin Dàojiào). The relationship between Taoist religion and Taoist philosophy is complex. One of the original founders of Taoist religious sects, Zhang Daoling, said he had received revelations from Laozi himself. Most Taoist religious sects hold Laozi to be at least a god, if not the highest divinity. Taoist religious practice often includes beliefs strongly founded on the Tao Te Ching. There are also hints in the Chuang Tzu of immortality, a common feature of Taoist religious practice. Further, many Chinese traditional religious practices are considered "Taoist" even when there is little that specifically makes them so. A clear and definitive distinction between that which is religion and that which is philosophy in Taoism is difficult. Moreover, a clear distinction between ideas and practices originating with Taoism and those from other sources in Chinese culture is also often impossible. |
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